PENDIDIKAN  ANTI KORUPSI

Affannur

Lembaga-lembaga pendidikan

selalu diidolakan dengan lembaga yang bebas dari praktik korupsi. 

Harapan dibebankan kedunia pendidikan untuk membangun sikap anti korupsi, membangun sikap amanah (trust).  

Tuntutannya,

sistem pendidikan harus dibenahi agar dapat menjawab permintaan tersebut.  Pertanyaannya apakah pendidikan di Indonesia siap untuk itu?  

Baca tulisan ini lebih lanjut.  

Pendidikan suatu proses belajar dan penyesuaian individu-individu secara terus menerus terhadap nilai-nilai budaya dan cita-cita masyarakat; suatu proses dimana suatu bangsa mempersiapkan generasi mudanya untuk menjalankan kehidupan dan untuk memenuhi tujuan hidup secara efektif dan efisien.  Ki Hajar Dewantara menyatakan bahwa pendidikan umumnya berarti daya upaya untuk memajukan budi pekerti (kekuatan batin), pikiran (intellect) dan jasmani anak-anak, selaras dengan alam dan masyarakatnya.[2] Mohammad Natsir dalam tulisannya Idiologi Didikan Islam, menyatakan pendidikan satu pimpinan jasmani dan ruhani menuju kepada kesempurnaan dan kelengkapan arti kemanusiaan dalam arti sesungguhnya.[3]  Dalam Undang-Undang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional  Nomor 20 Tahun 2003, pasal 3 bahwa pendidikan nasional berfungsi untuk mengembangkan kemampuan dan membentuk watak serta peradaban bangsa yang bermartabat dalam rangka mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa.[4]    

Dalam teori pendidikan terdapat tiga ranah dalam taksonomi tujuan pendidikan. Pertama, ranah kognitif yang menekankan aspek untuk mengingat dan mereproduksi informasi yang telah dipelajari, yaitu untuk mengkombinasikan cara-cara kreatif dan mensintesakan ide-ide dan materi baru. Kedua, ranah afektif yang menekankan aspek emosi, sikap, apresiasi, nilai atau tingkat kemampuan menerima atau menolak sesuatu. Ketiga, ranah psikomotorik yang menekankan pada tujuan untuk melatih keterampilan seperti menulis, teknik mengajar, berdagang, dan lain-lain.  Dari ketiga ranah pendidikan tersebut idealnya harus selaras dan saling melengkapi.  Tetapi kenyataannya hubungan antara perubahan sikap (afektif) dan meningkatnya ilmu pengetahuan (kognitif) secara statistik cenderung berdiri sendiri.  Maka dari ketiga unsur pencapaian pendidikan itu, idealnya harus dilakukan secara terpadu (integral) sehingga tercapai tujuan proses pendidikan yang diinginkan dan akan jelas ke mana pendidikan itu akan diarahkan. Namun kenyataanya kecenderungan dan pencapaian pendidikan sudah jauh bergeser dari tujuan idealnya.[5]

Pendidikan diselenggarakan dengan memberi keteladanan, membangun kemauan dan mengembangkan kreatifitas.[6]  Maka untuk mewujudkan pendidikan anti korupsi, harus menjadi tanggungjawab bersama antara keluarga, masyarakat, dan pemerintah, karena itu pendidikan berlangsung seumur hidup dan dilaksanakan di dalam lingkungan keluarga, sekolah, dan masyarakat. Pendidikan kita terdiri atas tiga bagian, yaitu pendidikan informal (keluarga), formal (sekolah) dan nonformal (masyarakat),[7] yang dapat saling melengkapi dan memperkaya.  Oleh karena itu, sasaran yang ingin dicapai dari pendidikan adalah pembentukan aspek kognitif (intelektual), afektif (sikap mental atau moral) dan psikomotorik (skill/keterampilan). Maka idealnya, pembentukan aspek kognitif menjadi tugas dan tanggung jawab para pendidik (guru) di sekolah, pembentukan aspek efektif menjadi tugas dan tanggung jawab orangtua, dengan membangun kepribadian dan kebiasaan. Sedangkan, pembentukan aspek psikomotorik menjadi tugas dan tanggung jawab masyarakat (lembaga-lembaga kursus, dan sejenisnya).   Dengan adanya pembagian tugas seperti ini,  maka masalah pendidikan anti korupsi sebenarnya menjadi tanggung jawab semua pihak: orangtua, pendidik (guru), dan masyarakat.[8]

  Dalam pendidikan keluarga, mengupayakan pendidikan moral seperti agama, budi pekerti, etika, dan sejenisnya, menjadi tugas dan tanggung jawab orangtua.  Ayah maupun ibu harus melatih anak-anaknya untuk jujur dalam melakukan berbagai hal, khususnya yang menyangkut dengan uang.  Kejujuran merupakan prinsip dasar dalam pendidikan anti korupsi.  Katakan saja, kalau seorang ayah atau ibu  menyuruh anaknya untuk belanja sesuatu ke warung, dia harus diajarkan mengembalikan uang sisa belanja tersebut dan tidak boleh mengantongi uang sisa belanja tersebut untuk dirinya sendiri.  Intinya kita sebagai orangtua harus menanamkan kejujuran pada anak. Hal ini dikatakan Menteri Negara Pemberdayaan Perempuan (Menneg PP) Meutia Hatta kepada wartawan di sela-sela bakti sosial menyambut Hari Ibu ke-80, di Jakarta.[9]

Kita harus dan berani membentuk sikap anti korupsi sejak dini dan dimulai dari pendidikan keluarga.  Hal ini jelas merupakan tindakan yang patut dan harus didukung, sebab internalisasi sikap dan kebiasaan anti korupsi dapat saja lewat penegakan hukum maupun pendidikan yang bernilai  preventif dan edukatif.  Maka arah dari semua langkah itu adalah membangun kultur perlawanan terhadap budaya korupsi yang dimulai dari pendidikan keluarga,  dengan sifat menciptakan efek jera, menebarkan budaya malu, menciptakan budaya kejujuran, budaya tanggung jawab dan berupaya untuk mencegah agar para calon pelaku korupsi takut untuk berbuat serupa.

Pendidikan di sekolah, mengembangkan pendidikan iptek (ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi) menjadi tugas dan tanggung jawab para pendidik (guru) di sekolah.  Maka untuk mewujudkan pendidikan anti korupsi,  pendidikan di sekolah harus diorientasikan pada tataran moral action, agar peserta didik tidak hanya berhenti pada kompetensi (competence) saja, tetapi sampai memiliki kemauan (will), dan kebiasaan (habit) dalam mewujudkan nilai-nilai dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.  Lickona (1991), menyatakan bahwa untuk mendidik moral anak sampai pada tataran moral action diperlukan tiga proses pembinaan yang berkelanjutan mulai dari proses moral knowing, moral feeling, hingga sampai pada moral action.  Ketiganya harus dikembangkan secara terpadu dan seimbang.[10]   Dengan demikian diharapkan potensi peserta didik dapat berkembang secara optimal, baik pada aspek kecerdasan intelektual, yaitu memiliki kecerdasan, pintar, kemampuan membedakan yang baik dan buruk, benar dan salah, serta menentukan mana yang bermanfaat.  Kecerdasan emosional, berupa kemampuan mengendalikan emosi, menghargai dan mengerti perasaan orang lain, dan mampu bekerja dengan orang lain.  Keecerdasan sosial,  yaitu memiliki kemampuan berkomunikasi, senang menolong, berteman, senang bekerja sama, senang berbuat untuk menyenangkan orang lain. Kecerdasan spritual, yaitu memiliki kemampuan iman yang anggun, merasa selalu diawasi oleh Allah, gemar berbuat baik karena lillahi ta’alah, disiplin beribadah, sabar, ikhtiar, jujur, pandai bersyukur dan berterima kasih. Sedangkan kecerdasan kinestetik,  adalah menciptakan keperdulian terhadap dirinya dengan menjaga kesehatan jasmani, tumbuh dari rizki yang hahal, dan sebagainya.  Maka sosok manusia yang mengembangkan berbagai kecerdasan tersebut,  diharapkan siap menghadapi dan memberantas perbuatan korupsi atau bersikap anti korupsi.

Pendidikan di sekolah harus dilakukan secara berkelanjutan mulai dari proses moral knowing, moral feeling, hingga moral action.  Kenapa, karena pendidikan memiliki peran yang strategis dalam mendukung dan bahkan mempercepat pembentukan masyarakat berkeadaban,[11] memiliki kemampuan, keterampilan, etos, dan motivasi untuk berpartisifasi aktif secara jujur dalam masyarakat.   Dalam konteks ini, menurut penulis dalam pendidikan di sekolah,  perlu membangun ”kantin kejujuran”  di sekolah-sekolah, tidak hanya  berkesan simbolik, atau bersifat basah basih,  tetapi harus dirancang dengan muatan sifat edukasi yang dikemukan di atas.    Mungkin saja,  eksistensinya mungkin terlalu kecil di tengah gelombang ”budaya korupsi” dan ”erosi kejujuran” yang melanda dan mendera bangsa ini.  Tapi  bila semua proses pendidikan dan pengajaran sekolah-sekolah di seluruh Indonesia membudayakan gerakan yang sama, maka lamban atau cepat  manfaat besar dari proses pendidikan ini akan sama-sama dirasakan.   Secara teknis, pada ”kantin kejururan” di sekolah, tiap pembeli atau siswa boleh mengambil barang apa pun di kantin tersebut, membayarnya, dan mengambil sendiri uang pengembaliannya.  Tidak ada penjual atau penjaga yang mengawasi, sehingga kalau seseorang mau bersikap tidak jujur dengan mengambil tanpa membayar atau membayar semaunya saja, tidak akan ada orang yang tahu. Yang dibutuhkan adalah mendengarkan suara atau kata hati nurani, dengan merasa tanpa diawasi oleh siapapun, maka hati dan tindakannya tetap harus mewujudkan sikap jujur.   Dengan demikian ukuran sukses atau tidaknya tujuan kantin tersebut akan terlihat dari neraca keuangannya, apakah secara bisnis bisa berjalan terus atau bangkrut. [12]  Hal ini sebagai salah satu upaya untuk menanamkan dan membentuk perilaku anti korupsi sejak dini.  Maka melalui kebiasaan dan pemberian contoh, para siswa akan belajar untuk bersikap jujur, kerja keras, disiplin, berani, tanggung jawab, mandiri, sederhana, adil, dan peduli, sehingga diharapkan  akan terbentuk karakter anti korupsi.

Proses percepatan pemberantasan korupsi bukan seperti membalik telapak tangan. Artinya, lebih dari itu harus ada kerja-kerja keras yang spartan dan simultan antara aparat penegak hukum dan masyarakat.  Harus dibangun kesadaran yang mengartikulasikan kejujuran dan budaya malu melakukan korupsi.   Maka munculnya wacana dan kesadaran moral untuk memberantas korupsi yang sudah menggurita ke segala lini kehidupan masyarakat Indonesia, selain melalui mekanisme hukum, juga membangun filosofi baru berupa penyamaan nalar dan nilia-nilai baru yang bebas korupsi melalui pendidikan formal, nonformal, dan informal.  Hal itu dilakukan karena pendidikan memiliki posisi sangat vital dalam upaya membangun sikap anti korupsi.  Karena, hakekat pendidikan adalah suatu proses menumbuhkembangkan eksistensi peserta-didik yang memasyarakat, membudaya, dalam tata kehidupan bermasyarakat.[13]

Kata  Antasari Azhar,  bahwa kebiasaan korupsi sepertinya telah mendarah daging di Indonesia.   Agar tak ikut arus, pendidikan anti korupsi harus diberikan sejak dini.  Ketua Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi pun berniat akan mengundang anak-anak yang duduk di sekolah dasar untuk belajar anti korupsi di kantornya. Menurutnya  pendidikan anti korupsi sejak dini ini penting.   Kita akan undang ke KPK untuk diberi pendidikan itu,  katanya.   Hal itu dikatakannya  di hadapan siswa-siswi Sekolah Darurat Kartini di kawasan Jakarta Utara, Kamis (6/11/2008).  Rencana ini, katanya akan menjadi salah satu program KPK ke depan. Anak-anak yang diundang, tidak hanya mereka yang menempuh pendidikan formal saja, tapi juga pendidikan informal.   Korupsi dapat berdampak ke banyak bidang termasuk pendidikan.  Ketua Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi (KPK) pun miris ketika masuk dan melihat Sekolah Darurat Kartini dan menyatakan apa ini akibat korupsi? [14]

Pendidikan anti korupsi harus diberikan melalui pembelajaran sikap mental dan nilai-nilai moral bebas korupsi di sekolah, sehingga generasi baru Indonesia diharapkan dapat memiliki pandangan dan sikap yang keras terhadap segala bentuk praktik korupsi.  Ketua MPR Hidayat Nurwahid, menyatakan bahwa pendidikan perlu dielaborasi dan diinternalisasikan dengan nilai-nilai anti korupsi sejak dini.  Pendidikan anti korupsi yang diberikan di sekolah diharapkan dapat menyelamatkan generasi muda agar tidak menjadi penerus tindakan-tindakan korup generasi sebelumnya.  Tapi hanya saja memberikan pendidikan anti korupsi bukan hal mudah.  Sebab,  bahkan lahirnya fenomena praktik korupsi juga berawal dari dunia pendidikan  yang cenderung tidak pernah memberikan sebuah mainstream atau paradigma  berperilaku jujur dalam berkata dan berbuat. Termasuk sekolah-sekolah di  negeri ini.  Misalnya guru menerangkan hal-hal idealis dalam memberikan pelajaran, menabung pangkal kaya, tetapi realitanya banyak guru yang korupsi, seperti korupsi waktu, korupsi materi pelajaran yang diberikan,.  korupsi berupa absen mengajar tanpa izin kelas. Hal-hal yang dilakukan itu, juga dapat memicu praktik korupsi yang lebih buruk di dunia pendidikan.[15]

Demikianlah tradisi korupsi yang kronis di negeri ini. Marilah kita berbuat, meskipun masih dalam batas yang kecil-kecilan, tapi yang penting memang itulah yang baru mampu kita lakukan.  Maka langkah untuk menangani korupsi melalui sistem pendidikan yang akan berdampak besar dalam kehidupan manusia Indonesia.  Dengan pendidikan anti korupsi, diharapkan dapat menghasilkan manusia-manusia yang memiliki kecintaan terhadap bangsa dan negara, memiliki prilaku yang baik, bermoral, berakhlakul karimah dan memiliki keimanan yang kuat.  Sejak dini para murid mulai diperkenalkan dan mempelajari betapa menarik dan buruknya dunia perkorupsian di Indonesia dalam mata pelajaran Anti-Korupsi. Maka,  dalam mata pelajaran Anti-Korupsi, para murid dapat membahas tentang bahaya korupsi, isu-isu terkini seputar korupsi, siapa saja pejabat yang terlibat dalam kasus korupsi, dan siapa saja yang sudah diputuskan bersalah.  Maka dari pendidikan Anti-Korupsi, target yang diharapkan adalah bagaimana menanamkan sebuah pola pikir dan sikap kepada masyarakat Indonesia terutama para pelajar sebagai calon-calon pemimpin untuk ”mengharamkan”  dan bahkan pada sikap ”membenci” suatu perbuatan atau perilaku yang dinamakan dengan tindakan korupsi.[16]

Selain itu, dalam proses pembelajaran sikap pengajar harus terbuka, jujur, tidak melakukan tindakan-tindakan pengurangan waktu, tidak korupsi materi pelajaran yang diberikan, tidak korupsi absen mengajar tanpa izin kelas, dan sebagainya  Bangunlah sistem pendidikan sebagai proses penyadaran potensi kejujuran, pendidikan hendaknya sebagai media penyadaran dari negara dan masyarakat yang memiliki kemampuan lebih.  Sehingga munculkan peserta didik dari proses penyadaran itu. Tapi janganlah jadikan proses pendidikan sebagai media investasi dari peserta didik, apa lagi para penyelenggara pendidikan mendapatkan keuntungan finansial dari investasi peserta didik.  Maka apabila sumber daya manusia yang lahir dari proses pendidikan seperti itu, setelah mendapatkan peluang kerja ia pun akan bekerja untuk mencari keuntungan demi mengembalikan investasi yang telah ia keluarkan selama dalam proses pendidikan.  Bahkan investasi yang ia telah keluarkan itu harus mendapatkan keuntungan yang lebih.  Jika sumber daya manusia itu tidak memiliki fondasi iman, akhlak, dan mental yang kuat, maka korupsi pun akan dilakukan,  karena mengais atau mencari rezeki secara benar, halal, dan wajar untuk mengembalikan investasi yang telah ia keluarkan dalam proses pendidikan  tidak didapatkannya.[17]

Lahirlah manusia yang tidak amanah (trust), tidak dapat dipercaya dari prodak pendidikan yang mengkodisikannya seperti itu. Jika prodak pendidikan, rakyat dan atau masyarakat yang tidak amanah, sulit dipercaya, tidak jujur, negara akan hancur.  Analog di atas diberikan untuk menggambarkan ”kantin” sebagai sebuah negara.  Jika pembelinya tidak membayar sesuai kewajibannya, maka modal yang dimiliki tentu akan tergerogoti. Maka kekayaan dalam bangunan sebuah negara akan habis jika ketidakjujuran yang merupakan basis sikap korup terjadi merajalela.  Bermacam jalan telah ditempuh untuk membangun kejujuran yang bertaut dengan menebar budaya malu.  Di antara beragam kreasi elemen rakyat yang peduli, maka ”kantin kejujuran”  merupakan ungkapan perlawanan terhadap korupsi secara edukatif.  Maka sebenarnya para pelaku korupsi, atau mereka yang berada dalam lingkaran kekuasaan mestinya tersentuh ketika anak-anak muda sekarang ini telah mengembangkan penalarannya sendiri untuk membangun budaya jujur, budaya malu, dan budaya anti korupsi.  Mereka tengah mengasah bahasa hati, bahasa nurani, dan bahasa kejujuran. Maka disadari atau tidak,  itulah sumbangsih para remaja untuk menyelamatkan Indonesia,[18] dari kebungkrutan karena ulah para koruptor.

Harapan mulai dibebankan kedunia pendidikan untuk membangun sikap anti korupsi, membangun sikap amanah (trust). Tuntutannya, sistem pendidikan harus dibenahi agar dapat menjawab permintaan tersebut. Pertanyaannya apakah pendidikan di Indonesia siap untuk itu?  Sebab realitas dalam dunia pendidikan di Indonesia, masih banyak terjadi tindak penyimpangan dalam proses yang dapat dikatakan sebagai indikator rendahnya sikap amanah (trust) atau tindak korupsi.   Katakan saja dalam dunia pendidikan, muncul dan terjadi tindak pemalsuan ijazah, penjualan ijazah,  pembocoran soal, penjualan soal, terjadi penjualan nilai, terjadi manipulasi nilai, tradisi nyontek di kalangan siswa/mahasiswa,  plagiasi makalah atau tugas-tugas mahasiswa, skripsi,[19] tesis, disertasi, dan lain-lain, juga merupakan beberapa indikator lainnya dari rendahnya sikap amanah (trust).   Kasus di Yogyakarta beberapa bulan yang lalu, kita mendengar beribu ”ijazah aspal” (asli tapi palsu) yang dikeluarka beberapa institusi pendidikan.   Fenomena semacam ini sangat memilukan dan menyedihkan dunia pendidikan dan merupakan tantangan yang perlu segera dijawab oleh lembaga pendidikan itu sendiri,  sehingga dapat membangun masyarakat yang memiliki sikap amanah (trust)  yang tinggi.[20]

Pendidikan di masyarakat, mengembangkan pendidikan keterampilan (skills), perilaku (behavior), pembentukan kebiasaan (habit formation), pemberian contoh atau pemodelan (social learning) dalam kehidupan di masyarakat.  Cara-cara inilah  yang harus dibiasakan dan di internalisasikan dalam kehidupan di lingkungan masyarakat, dilembaga-lembaga sosial masyarakat, lembaga-lembaga sosial keagama, di rumah-rumah ibadah, sehingga terbangun social-capital yang kokoh. Inti dari social-capital adalah trust (sikap amanah), atau masyarakat yang saling percaya dan dapat dipercaya,[21] karena  memiliki sikap jujur dan bertanggung jawab.  Menurut pengamatan sementara ahli, bahwa dalam bidang social capital bangsa Indonesia ini hampir mencapai titik zero trust society, atau masyarakat yang sulit dipercaya, artinya sikap amanah (trust) sangat lemah.  Sebagai salah satu indikatornya, hasil survey the Political and Economic Risk Consultancy (PERC) tahun 2004, indeks korupsi di Indonesia sudah mencapai 9,25 atau ranking pertama se Asia, bahkan pada tahun 2005 indeksnya meningkat sampai 9,4. Memang setelah diteliti, ternyata benar bahwa telah terjadi tindak korupsi bermiliar-miliar atau bahkan trilyunan rupiah di berbagai instansi dan institusi[22]

Pendidikan anti-korupsi bagi masyarakat, untuk membrantas korupsi membutuhkan waktu beberapa generasi. Itu pun kalau ada program yang dilakukan secara konsisten.  Katakan saja, untuk menghentikan kebiasaan merokok saja  tidak gampang, apalagi korupsi.  Korupsi sudah sedemikian ”menggurita” dalam birokrasi negara dan telah membudaya dalam kehidupan masyarakat. Paling dirugikan adalah rakyat banyak dan  di antara lapisan masyarakat yang paling dirugikan adalah mereka yang jauh dari akses kekuasaan.  Oleh sebab itu rakyat atau masyarakat berhak dan berkewajiban melakukan kontrol untuk menghentikan atau minimal menekan segala bentuk tindakan korup. Kontrol masyarakat (kontrol publik) merupakan senjata ampuh untuk terjun ke medan pertempuran melawan wabah korupsi. Tetapi untuk memenangkan pertempuran melawan korupsi, kontrol publik saja tidaklah memadai. Perlu senjata lain, yaitu partisipasi publik. Fuad Hassan, menyebut kontrol publik dan partisipasi publik sebagai dwitunggal. Dengan kontrol dan partisipasi publik, tindak korupsi bisa ditekan.[23]

Maka untuk mewujudkan pendidikan anti-korupsi bagi masyarakat, diperlukan partisipasi publik sendiri yang merupakan syarat mutlak agar kontrol publik bisa dilakukan secara efektif.  Partisipasi publik akan terwujud bila publik memperoleh cukup informasi.  Lantas apa yang terjadi bila informasinya sengaja ditutupi?  Ini berarti tidak ada keterbukaan.  Bila tidak ada keterbukaan, tidak akan ada partisipasi publik, apalagi kontrol publik. Dan jika tidak ada kontrol publik, kekuasaan akan menjadi semakin kuat tak terkontrol. Dan ini artinya parktek-praktek korupsi makin menjadi-jadi. Sebagaimana dikatakan Lord Acton; “Power tends to corrupt, absolut power corrupt absolutly”. Karena itu memberikan informasi dan pendidikan bagi publik agar melek informasi, khususnya terkait dengan korupsi bukan hanya perlu tetapi sesuatu yang mendesak dilakukan.  Apalagi dalam kehidupan politik kontemporer, korupsi tidak jarang dijadikan isu dan komoditas politik, sehingga korupsi dikonstruksi menjadi masalah politik, bukan lagi masalah hukum apalagi moral kejujuran.

Dalam keadaan seperti ini, kesadaran politik tentang bahaya korupsi harus dibangkitkan dan dididik agar mempunyai ghirah memberantas korupsi.  Upaya mendidik dan menyadarkan masyarakat ini penting, sebab masyarakat yang sadar jelas lebih baik daripada masyarakat yang apatis, yang tidak menyadari atau tidak tahu hak-haknya dan bersikap masa bodoh atau ”tepoliro” terhadap segala bentuk penyelewengan dan penyalahgunaan yang dilakukan pejabat publik atau siapa saja yang melakukan korupsi.   Sebab sikap masa bodoh dan ”teposliro” ini adalah lahan subur bagi tumbuhnya wabah korupsi dan dianggap sebagai perbuatan biasa saja. Oleh karena itu,  upaya mendidik, memberdayakan, dan membangkitkan kesadaran mengenai betapa krusialnya persoalan korupsi jelas merupakan sesuatu yang mendesak dilakukan. Karena warga masyarakat yang sadar dan memiliki pemahaman yang cukup tentang korupsi adalah landasan yang sangat pengting bagi usaha menekan derasnya arus korupsi.  Dengan demikian kuncinya adalah perlunya pendidikan anti-korupsi bagi siswa, mahasiswa, dan masyarakat umumnya, agar ”melek”  terhadap korupsi.[24]  Dengan demikian, dapat dikatakan bahwa  pendidikan atau pembelajaran anti-korupsi yang dilaksanakan secara terencana dan sistematis, mulai dari pendidikan informal keluarga dirumah, pendidikan formal di sekolah, dan pendidikan nonformal di masyarakat, dapat mencegah, mengurangi, dan bahkan memberantas korupsi di Indonesia sampai ke akar-akarnya.

DAFTAR  KEPUSTAKAAN

Azhar, Antasari, Beri Pendidikan Anti Korupsi, Antasari Undang Anak-anak ke KPK, Kamis, 06/11/2008 12:40 WIB http://www.detiknews.com/read/ 2008/11/06/124015/1032322/10/beri-pendidikan-anti-korupsi-antasari-undang-anak-anak-ke-kpk, access, sabtu,30/1/2009,jam.23.00 wib.

Azra, Azyumardi, 2002, Paradigma Baru Pendidikan Nasional, Rekonstruksi dan Demokratisasi, Penerbit Kompas, Jakarta.

Bayu. An, Pendidikan Anti Korupsi ? Wajib itu….,  http://bayuadhitya.wordpress. com/2008/05/28/pendidikan-anti-korupsi-wajib-itu/,access,kamis,29/1/ 2009, jam. 23.30 wib.

Dewantara, Ki Hajar, 1977, Pendidikan, Majelis Luhur Persatuan Tamaan Siswa, Yogyakarta.

Elisabeth, Stevani, Pendidikan Antikorupsi Dimulai dari Rumah Tangga, http://www.sinarharapan.co. id/ berita/ 0812/ 12/kesra01.html,access, 30/1/2009, jam. 23.00 wib.

Lickona, Thomas, 1991, Educating for Character How Our Schools Can Teach Respect and Responsibility, New York: Bantam Books.

Muhaimin, 2006, Nuansa Baru Pendidikan Islam, Mengurai Benang Kusut Dunia Pendidikan, RajaGrafindo Persada, Jakarta.

Mimbar Agama Hindu, Pendidikan Mengatasi Korupsi http://www. balipost. co.id/ balipostcetak/2005/4/26/o3.htm., access, kamis, 29/1/2009, jam. 23.00

Mursyid, Ali, Pendidikan Anti-Korupsi Berbasis Masyarakat, http:// kangalimursyid.blogspot.com/2007/05/pendidikan-anti-korupsi-berbasis. html, access, kamis, 29/1/2009, jam. 23.30

Nugroho, Tjahjadi, 2007, Kata Sambutan, dalam buku: Syamsul Ma’arif, Revitalisasi Pendidikan Islam, Graha Ilmu, Yogyakarta.

Tilaar, HAR., 1998. Beeberapa Agenda Reformasi Pendidikan Nasional Dalam Perspektif Abad 21,  Tera Indonesia, Magelang. 

____,1999, Pendidikan, Kebudayaan, dan Masyarakat Madani Indonesia, Startegi Reformasi Pendidikan Nasional, Remaja Rosdakarya, Bandung.

Pendidikan Anti Korupsi di UIN/IAIN/STAIN: Membangun Budaya Anti Korupsi, http://www.csrc.or.id/ berita/index. php?detail=051212063548, access, kamis, 29/1/2009, jam 23.00.

Rosi Sugiarto, Pendidikan Anti Korupsi Sejak Dini, http://news.okezone.com/ read/2008/12/10/ 220/172280/220/ pendidikan-anti-korupsi-sejak-dini, access, jum’at, 30/1/2009, jam. 23.00.

Rusli, Korupsi Di Indonesia, http://www.bangrusli.net/index.php?option= com_content&task=view&id=317&Itemid=38, access, kamis, 29/1/2009, jam. 23.15.

Sanaky, Hujair AH., 2003, Paradigma Pendidikan Islam: Membangun Masyaraakat Madani Indonesia, Safiria Insania Press dan MSI, Yogyakarta.

____, 2008, Academics Undergound (Studi Terhadap Layanan Biro-biro Bimbingan Skripsi di Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta),  Hasil penelitian ini telah dimuat di Jurnal  Millah, Jurnal Studi Agama, ISSN 1412-0992, Terakreditasi SK Dirjen Dikti Diknas RI No. 167/DIKTI/Kep./2007, Vol.VII,No.2 Februari 2008. Magister Studi Islam (MSI), Universitas Islam Indonesia Yogyakarta.

Syarif S, Sabiqul Khair, Pendidikan Antikorupsi di Sekolah, http://www. freelists. org/post/list_indonesia/ppiindia-Pendidikan-Antikorupsi-di-Sekolah,8, acces, sabtu, 30/1/2009, jam. 20.40 wib.

Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 20 Tahun 2003, Sistem Pendidikan Nasional,  Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia, Jakarta.

Wiryana, Made, Penyelesaian Problem Sosial Melalui Optimalisasi Fungsi Tri Pusat Pendidikan (sebuah paper yang idenya tercetus ketika banyak melihat problem sosial di kampung-kampung miskin di perkotaan) http://wiryana-holistic.blogspot.com/2008/05/problem-sosial-dan-tri-pusat-pendidikan.html, achttp://wiryana-holistic.blogspot. com/ 2008/05/problem-sosial-dan-tri-pusat-pendidikan.html, access, sabtu, 31/1/2009, jam. 16.45.

50 Keajaiban Kota Kuno di Dunia !

50 Keajaiban Kota Kuno di Dunia !

Affannur

1. Easter Island (Chile)

Easter Island is a Polynesian island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeastern most point of the Polynesian triangle. A special territory of Chile annexed in 1888, Easter Island is widely famous for its 887 extant monumental statues, called moai, created by the early Rapanui people. It is a World Heritage Site with much of the island protected within the Rapa Nui National Park. The history of Easter Island is rich and controversial. Its inhabitants have endured famines, epidemics, civil war, slave raids and colonialism, and near deforestation; their population has declined precipitously more than once. They have left a cultural legacy that has brought them fame disproportionate to their population.

2. Machu Picchu (Peru)

Machu Picchu is a pre-Columbian Inca site located 2,430 metres (8,000 ft) above sea level. It is situated on a mountain ridge above the vicalamba Valley in Peru, which is 80 kilometres (50 mi) northwest of Cuzco and through which the Urubamba River flows. Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti (1438–1472). Often referred to as “The Lost City of the Incas”, it is perhaps the most familiar icon of the Inca World.

Central America & Caribbean

3. Teotihuacan (Mexico)

Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. At its zenith in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas. At this time it may have had more than 200,000 inhabitants, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.

5. Palenque (Mexico)

Palenque was a Maya city state in southern Mexico that flourished in the seventh century CE. After its decline it was absorbed into the jungle, but has been excavated and restored and is now a famous archaeological site attracting thousands of visitors. It is located near the Usumacinta River in the Mexican state of Chiapas, located about 130 km south of Ciudad del Carmen (see map) about 150 meters above sea-level.

Europe

6. Château de Chambord (France)

The royal Château de Chambord at Chambord, Loir-et-Cher, France is one of the most recognizable châteaux in the world because of its very distinct French Renaissance architecture that blends traditional French medieval forms with classical Italian structures. The building, which was never completed, was constructed by King François I in part to be near to his mistress the Comtesse de Thoury, Claude Rohan, wife of Julien de Clermont, a member of a very important family of France, whose domaine, the château de Muides, was adjacent. Her arms figure in the carved decor of the chateau. Chambord is the largest castle in the Loire Valley, but was built to serve only as a hunting lodge for François I, who maintained his royal residences at Château de Blois and at Château d’Amboise. The original design of the Château de Chambord is attributed, though with several doubts, to Domenico da Cortona, whose wooden model for the design survived long enough to be drawn by André Félibien in the seventeenth century.

7. Chartres Cathedral (France)

The Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartres, a Latin Rite Catholic cathedral located in Chartres, about 80 kilometres (50 mi) southwest of Paris, is considered one of the finest examples in all France of the Gothic style of architecture. The current cathedral is one of at least four that have occupied the site. From a distance it seems to hover in mid-air above waving fields of wheat, and it is only when the visitor draws closer that the city comes into view, clustering around the hill on which the cathedral stands. Its two contrasting spires — one, a 105 metre (349 ft) plain pyramid dating from the 1140s, and the other a 113 metre (377 ft) tall early 16th century Flamboyant spire on top of an older tower — soar upwards over the pale green roof, while all around the outside are complex flying buttresses.

8. Pont du Gard (France)

The Pont du Gard is an aqueduct in the South of France constructed by the Roman Empire, and located in Vers-Pont-du-Gard near Remoulins, in the Gard département. It has long been thought that the Pont du Gard was built by Augustus’ son-in-law and aide, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, around the year 19 BC. Newer excavations, however, suggest the construction may have taken place in the middle of the first century A.D; consequently, opinion is now somewhat divided on the matter.

9. Acropolis of Athens (Greece)

The Acropolis of Athens is the best known acropolis in the world. Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as The Acropolis without qualification. The Acropolis was formally proclaimed as the pre-eminent monument on the European Cultural Heritage list of monuments on 26 March 2007. The Acropolis is a flat-topped rock that rises 150 m (490 ft) above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about 3 hectares. It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, the first Athenian king. The entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway called the Propylaea. To the south of the entrance is the tiny Temple of Athena Nike. A bronze statue of Athena, sculpted by Phidias, originally stood at its centre. At the centre of the Acropolis is the Parthenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). East of the entrance and north of the Parthenon is the temple known as the Erechtheum.

10. Archaeological Site of Delphi (Greece)

Delphi is both an archaeological site and a modern town in Greece on the south-western spur of Mount Parnassus in the valley of Phocis. Delphi was the site of the Delphic oracle, the most important oracle in the classical Greek world, and a major site for the worship of the god Apollo after he slew the Python, a deity who lived there and protected the navel of the Earth. Python (derived from the verb pythein, “to rot”) is claimed by some to be the original name of the site in recognition of the Python that Apollo defeated (Miller, 95). The Homeric Hymn to Delphic Apollo recalled that the ancient name of this site had been Krisa. His sacred precinct in Delphi was a panhellenic sanctuary, where every four years, starting in 586 B.C. (Miller, 96) athletes from all over the Greek world competed in the Pythian Games, one of the four panhellenic (or stephanitic) games, precursors of the Modern Olympics.

11. Epidaurus Theater (Greece)

The prosperity brought by the Asklepieion enabled Epidauros to construct civic monuments too: the huge theater that delighted Pausanias for its symmetry and beauty, which is used once again for dramatic performances, the ceremonial Hestiatoreion (banqueting hall), baths and a palaestra. The theater was designed by Polykleitos the Younger in the 4th century BC. The original 34 rows were extended in Roman times by another 21 rows. As is usual for Greek theaters (and as opposed to Roman ones), the view on a lush landscape behind the skene is an integral part of the theater itself and is not to be obscured. It seats up to 15,000 people.

12. Colosseum (Italy)

The Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre, is an elliptical amphitheatre in the center of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering. Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further modifications being made during Domitian’s reign (81–96). The name “Amphitheatrum Flavium” derives from both Vespasian’s and Titus’s family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia). Capable of seating 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles. As well as the gladiatorial games, other public spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology.

13. Grand Canal Of Venice (Italy)

The Grand Canal is a canal in Venice, Italy. It forms one of the major water-traffic corridors in the city. Public transport is provided by water buses and private water taxis, but many tourists visit it by gondola. At one end the canal leads into the lagoon near Santa Lucia railway station and the other end leads into Saint Mark Basin: in between it makes a large S-shape through the central districts (”sestieri”) of Venice. It is 3,800 m long, 30-90 m wide, with an average depth of five meters. The Grand Canal banks are lined with more than 170 buildings, most of which date to 13th/18th century and demonstrate the welfare and art created by the Republic of Venice. The noble venetian families faced huge expenses to show off their richness in suitable palazzos: this contest reveals the citizens’ pride and the deep bond with the lagoon.

14. Pompeii (Italy)

Pompeii is a ruined and partially buried Roman town-city near modern Naples in the Italian region of Campania, in the territory of the comune of Pompeii. Along with Herculaneum, its sister city, Pompeii was destroyed and completely buried during a long catastrophic eruption of the volcano Mount Vesuvius spanning two days in 79 AD. The volcano collapsed higher roof-lines and buried Pompeii under 20 meters of ash and pumice, and it was lost for nearly 1,700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire. Today, this UNESCO World Heritage Site is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy, with 2,571,725 visitors in 2007.

15. Piazza del Campo (Italy)

Piazza del Campo is the principal public space of the historic center of Siena, Tuscany, Italy and is one of Europe’s greatest medieval squares. It is renowned worldwide for its beauty and architectural integrity. The Palazzo Pubblico and its Torre del Mangia, as well as various palazzi signorili surround the shell-shaped piazza. At the northwest edge is the Fonte Gaia. The twice-per-year horse-race, Palio di Siena, is held around the edges of the piazza.

16. Hieronymites Monastery (Portugal)

The Hieronymites Monastery is located in the Belém district of Lisbon, Portugal. This magnificent monastery can be considered one of the most prominent monuments in Lisbon and is certainly one of the most successful achievements of the Manueline style (Portuguese late-Gothic). In 1983, it was classified by the UNESCO, with nearby Belém Tower, as a World Heritage Site. The house for the Hieronymite monks was built on the same site of the Ermida do Restelo, a hermitage that was founded by Henry the Navigator at about 1450. It was at this hermitage, that was already in disrepair, that Vasco da Gama and his men spent the night in prayer before departing for India in 1497.

17. Alhambra (Spain)

The Alhambra, the complete form of which was Calat Alhambra, is a palace and fortress complex constructed during the mid 14th century by the Moorish rulers of the Emirate of Granada in Al-Andalus, occupying a hilly terrace on the southeastern border of the city of Granada, now in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Once the residence of the Muslim rulers of Granada and their court, the site became a Christian palace. Within the Alhambra, the Palace of Charles V was erected by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1527. After being allowed to fall into disrepair, the Alhambra was “rediscovered” in the 19th century. It is now one of Spain’s major tourist attractions and exhibits the country’s most famous Islamic architecture, together with Christian 16th-century and later interventions in buildings and gardens.

18. Chillon Castle (Switzerland)

The Chillon Castle (Château de Chillon) is located on the shore of Lake Geneva in the municipality of Veytaux, at the eastern end of the lake, 3 km from Montreux, Switzerland. The castle consists of 100 independent buildings that were gradually connected to become the building as it stands now. The oldest parts of the castle have not been definitively dated, but the first written record of the castle is in 1160 or 1005. From the mid 12th century, the castle was home to the Counts of Savoy, and it was greatly expanded in the 13th century by Pietro II. The Castle was never taken in a siege, but did change hands through treaties.

19. Stonehenge (United Kingdom)

Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) west of Amesbury and 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) north of Salisbury. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting of large standing stones. It is at the centre of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, including several hundred burial mounds. Archaeologists had believed that the iconic stone monument was erected around 2500 BC, as described in the chronology below. One recent theory, however, has suggested that the first stones were not erected until 2400-2200 BC, whilst another suggests that bluestones may have been erected at the site as early as 3000 BC (see phase 1 below).

Africa

20. Great Pyramid of Giza (Egypt)

The Great Pyramid of Giza (also called the Pyramid of Khufu and the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt, and in a historical irony is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and the only one that survives substantially intact. It is believed the pyramid was built as a tomb for fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops in Greek) and constructed over a 20 year period concluding around 2551 BC. The Great Pyramid consists of more than 2.3 million limestone blocks (unless it was built on a substantial core of natural rock, which is possible). The Egyptians obtained the majority of the limestone blocks from a nearby quarry. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the “King’s” chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported more than 500 miles away from Aswan.

21. Abu Simbel (Egypt)

Abu Simbel temples are two massive rock temples in Nubia, southern Egypt on the western bank of Lake Nasser about 290 km southwest of Aswan. It is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the “Nubian Monuments”, which run from Abu Simbel downriver to Philae (near Aswan). The twin temples were originally carved out of the mountainside during the reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II in the 13th century BC, as a lasting monument to himself and his queen Nefertari, to commemorate his alleged victory at the Battle of Kadesh, and to intimidate his Nubian neighbors. However, the complex was relocated in its entirety in the 1960s, on an artificial hill made from a domed structure, high above the Aswan High Dam reservoir. The relocation of the temples was necessary to avoid their being submerged during the creation of Lake Nasser, the massive artificial water reservoir formed after the building of the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River. Abu Simbel remains one of Egypt’s top tourist attractions.

22. Karnak (Egypt)

The Karnak Temple Complex — usually called simply Karnak — comprises a vast conglomeration of ruined temples, chapels, pylons and other buildings, notably the Great Temple of Amen and a massive structure begun by Pharaoh Amenhotep III (ca. 1391-1351 BC). It is located near Luxor, some 500 km south of Cairo, in Egypt. The area around Karnak was the ancient Egyptian Ipet-isut (”The Most Selected of Places”) and the main place of worship of the Theban Triad with the god Amun as its head. It is part of the monumental city of Thebes. The Karnak complex takes its name from the nearby (and partly surrounded) modern village of el-Karnak, some 2.5 km north of Luxor.

23. Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (Egypt)

The Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut is situated beneath the cliffs at Deir el Bahari on the west bank of the Nile near the Valley of the Kings in Egypt. Designed by the architect Senemut, the mortuary temple is dedicated to the sun god Amon-Ra and is located next to the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II, which served both as an inspiration, and later, a quarry. It is considered one of the “incomparable monuments of ancient Egypt.”. Hatshepsut’s temple is considered the closest Egypt came to the Classical Architecture. It marks a turning point in the architecture of Ancient Egypt, which forsook the megalithic geometry of the Old Kingdom for a temple which allowed for active worship, requiring the presence of participants to create the majesty.

24. Leptis Magna (Libya)

Leptis Magna, also known as Lectis Magna (or Lepcis Magna as it is sometimes spelled), also called Lpqy or Neapolis, was a prominent city of the Roman Empire. Its ruins are located in Al Khums, Libya, 130 km east of Tripoli, on the coast where the Wadi Lebda meets the sea. The site is one of the most spectacular and unspoiled Roman ruins in the Mediterranean. The city appears to have been founded by Phoenician colonists sometime around 1100 BC, although it did not achieve prominence until Carthage became a major power in the Mediterranean Sea in the 4th century BC. It nominally remained part of Carthage’s dominions until the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BC and then became part of the Roman Republic, although from about 200 BC onward, it was for all intents and purposes an independent city.

25. Timbuktu (Mali)

Timbuktu (Timbuctoo) is a city in Tombouctou Region, in the West African nation of Mali. It was made prosperous by the tenth mansa of the Mali Empire, Mansa Musa. It is home to Sankore University and other madrasas, and was an intellectual and spiritual capital and centre for the propagation of Islam throughout Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. Its three great mosques, Djingareyber, Sankore and Sidi Yahya, recall Timbuktu’s golden age. Although continuously restored, these monuments are today under threat from desertification.

Asia
26. Angkor Wat (Cambodia)

Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple complex at Angkor, Cambodia, built for the king Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre since its foundation—first Hindu, dedicated to the god Vishnu, then Buddhist. The temple is the epitome of the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country’s prime attraction for visitors. Angkor Wat, is a unique combination of the temple mountain, the standard design for the empire’s state temples, the later plan of concentric galleries, and influences from Orissa and the Chola of Tamil Nadu, India. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.

27. Great Wall of China (China)

The Great Wall of China or is a series of stone and earthen fortifications in northern China, built, rebuilt, and maintained between the 5th century BC and the 16th century to protect the northern borders of the Chinese Empire. Since the 5th century BC, several walls have been built that were referred to as the Great Wall. One of the most famous is the wall built between 220–206 BC by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang. Little of that wall remains; the majority of the existing wall were built during the Ming Dynasty.

28. Forbidden City (China)

The Forbidden City was the Chinese imperial palace from the Ming Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty. It is located in the middle of Beijing, China, and now houses the Palace Museum. For almost five centuries, it served as the home of the Emperor and his household, as well as the ceremonial and political centre of Chinese government. Since 1925, the Forbidden City has been under the charge of the Palace Museum, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum’s former collection is now located in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums descend from the same institution, but were split after the Chinese Civil War. (based on a

29. Terracotta Army (China)

The Terracotta Army is the Terra Cotta Warriors and Horses of Qin Shi Huang the First Emperor of China. The terracotta figures, dating from 210 BC, were discovered in 1974 by some local farmers near Xi’an, Shaanxi province, China near the Mausouleum of the First Qin Emperor. The figures vary in height (183–195 cm - 6 ft–6 ft 5in), according to their role, the tallest being the generals. The figures include warriors, chariots, horses, officials, acrobats, strongmen, and musicians. Current estimates are that in the three pits containing the Terracotta Army there were over 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of which are still buried in the pits. Many archeologists believe that there are many pits still waiting to be discovered.

30. Hanging Temple of Hengshan (China)

The Hanging Temple is a temple built into a cliff ( 75m Above the ground ) near Mount Heng in the province of Shanxi. The closest city is Datong, 65 kilometers to the northwest. Along with the Yungang Grottoes, the Hanging Temple is one of the main tourist attractions and historical sites in the Datong area. Built more than 1,500 years ago, this temple is notable not only for its location on a sheer precipice but also because it includes Buddhist, Taoist, and Confucian elements.

31. Leshan Giant Buddha (China)

The Leshan Giant Buddha was built during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). It is carved out of a cliff face that lies at the confluence of the Minjiang, Dadu and Qingyi rivers in the southern part of Sichuan province in China, near the city of Leshan. The stone sculpture faces Mount Emei, with the rivers flowing below his feet. It is the largest carved stone Buddha in the world and at the time of its construction was the tallest statue in the world. At 71 metres (233 feet) tall, the statue depicts a seated Maitreya Buddha with his hands resting on his knees. His shoulders are 28 metres wide and his smallest toenail is large enough to easily accommodate a seated person.

32. Taj Mahal (India)

The Taj Mahal is a mausoleum located in Agra, India, built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal is considered the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements from Persian, Indian, and Islamic architectural styles. In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site and was cited as “the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world’s heritage.”

33. Harmandir Sahib (India)

Golden Temple or Harmandir Sahib, informally referred to as The Golden Temple or Temple of God, is culturally the most significant place of worship of the Sikhs and one of the oldest Sikh gurdwaras. It is located in the city of Amritsar, which was established by Guru Ram Das Ji, the fourth guru of the Sikhs, and is, also due to the shrine, known as Guru Di Nagri meaning city of the Guru. Originally built during AD 1574, the site of the temple was surrounded by a small lake in a thin forest. The third of the six grand Mughals, emperor Akbar, who visited the third Sikh Guru, Guru Amar Das.

34. Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple (India)

Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple or Meenakshi Amman Temple is a historic Hindu temple located in the holy city of Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. It is dedicated to Lord Shiva (in the form of Sundareswarar or Beautiful Lord) and his consort, Goddess Parvati (in the form of Meenakshi). The temple forms the heart and lifeline of the 2500 year old city of Madurai. The complex houses 14 magnificent Gopurams or towers including two golden Gopurams for the main deities, that are elaborately sculptured and painted. The temple is a significant symbol for the Tamil people, and has been mentioned since antiquity in Tamil literature, though the present structure is believed to have been built in 1600. The tallest temple tower is 51.9 metres (170 ft) high.

35. Borobudur (Indonesia)

Borobudur is a ninth-century Mahayana Buddhist monument in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. The monument comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. A main dome, located at the center of the top platform, is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues seated inside perforated stupa. The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path circumambulating the monument while ascending to the top through the three levels of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). During the journey the monument guides the pilgrims through a system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the wall and the balustrades.

36. Kinkaku-ji (Japan)

Kinkaku-ji or formally Rokuon-ji is a Zen Buddhist temple in Kyoto, Japan. It is one of the construction that represents the Kitayama Culture of Muromachi period. The original Kinkaku-ji was built in 1397 to serve as a retirement villa for Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, as part of his estate then known as Kitayama. It was his son, shogun Ashikaga Yoshimochi, who converted the building into a Zen temple of the Rinzai school.

37. Bagan (Myanmar)

Bagan, formerly Pagan, is an ancient city in the Mandalay Division of Burma (Myanmar). Formally titled Arimaddanapura or Arimaddana (the City of the Enemy Crusher) and also known as Tambadipa (the Land of Copper) or Tassadessa (the Parched Land), it was the ancient capital of several ancient kingdoms in Burma. It is located in the dry central plains of the country, on the eastern bank of the Ayeyarwady River, 90 miles (145 km) southwest of Mandalay. Bagan was submitted to become a UNESCO heritage site but many speculate of politics as partly the reason for the exclusion. UNESCO does not designate Bagan as a World Heritage Site. The main reason given is that the military junta (SPDC) has haphazardly restored ancient stupas, temples and buildings, ignoring original architectural styles and using modern materials which bear little or no resemblance to the original designs. The junta has also established a golf course, a paved highway, and built a 200-foot (61-m) watchtower in the southeastern suburb of Minnanthu.

38. Banaue Rice Terraces (Philippines)

The Banaue Rice Terraces are 2000-year old terraces that were carved into the mountains of Ifugao in the Philippines by ancestors of the indigenous people. The Rice Terraces are commonly referred to by Filipinos as the “Eighth Wonder of the World”. It is commonly thought that the terraces were built with minimal equipment, largely by hand. The terraces are located approximately 1500 meters (5000 ft) above sea level and cover 10,360 square kilometers (about 4000 square miles) of mountainside. They are fed by an ancient irrigation system from the rainforests above the terraces. It is said that if the steps are put end to end it would encircle half the globe. The Banaue terraces are part of the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras, ancient sprawling man-made structures from 2,000 to 6,000 years old. They are found in the provinces of Kalinga, Apayao, Benguet, Mountain Province and Ifugao, and are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

39. Kremlin (Russia)

Kremlin is the Russian word for “fortress”, “citadel” or “castle” and refers to any major fortified central complex found in historic Russian cities. This word is often used to refer to the best-known one, the Moscow Kremlin, or metonymically to the government that is based there. Outside Russia, the name “Kremlin” is sometimes mistakenly thought of as being Saint Basil’s Cathedral because of its distinctive environment, although this is not a part of the Moscow Kremlin. The name Kremlin (or Kreml) has been allocated to various Soviet Navy vessels during construction. In each case, the name was changed prior to commissioning. Vessels which have briefly carried this name included Admiral Kuznetsov and Ulyanovsk.

40. Wat Phra Kaew (Thailand)

The Wat Phra Kaew (English Temple of the Emerald Buddha) full official name Wat Phra Sri Rattana Satsadaram, is regarded as the most sacred Buddhist temple (wat) in Thailand. It is located in the historic center of Bangkok (district Phra Nakhon), within the grounds of the Grand Palace. The construction of the temple started when King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (Rama I) moved the capital from Thonburi to Bangkok in 1785. Unlike other temples it does not contain living quarters for monks; rather, it has only the highly decorated holy buildings, statues, and pagodas.

41. Wat Arun (Thailand)

Wat Arun is a Buddhist temple (wat) in the Bangkok Yai district of Bangkok, Thailand, on the west bank of the Chao Phraya River. The full name of the temple is Wat Arunratchawararam Ratchaworamahawihan. The outstanding feature of Wat Arun is its central prang (Khmer-style tower). Begun in 1809, it may have been named “Temple of the Dawn” because the first light of morning reflects off the surface of the temple with a pearly iridescence. Steep steps lead up to two terraces. The height is reported by different sources as between 66.8 m and 86 m. The corners are surrounded by 4 smaller satellite prangs. The prangs are decorated by seashells and bits of porcelain which had previously been used as ballast by boats coming to Bangkok from China.

Middle East
42. Dome of the Rock (Israel)

The Dome of the Rock is an Islamic shrine and major landmark located on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. It was completed in 691, making it the oldest existing Islamic building in the world. The site’s significance stems from the religious beliefs regarding the rock, known as the Foundation Stone in Judaism, at its heart. The Dome of the Rock is located at the visual center of a platform known as the Temple Mount, which Muslims refer to as the “Noble Sanctuary”. It was constructed over the site of the Second Jewish Temple which was destroyed during the Roman Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. In 637 CE, Jerusalem was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate army during the Islamic invasion of the Byzantine Empire.

43. Masada (Israel)

Masada is the name for a site of ancient palaces and fortifications in the South District of Israel on top of an isolated rock plateau, or horst, on the eastern edge of the Judean Desert overlooking the Dead Sea. After the First Jewish-Roman War a siege of the fortress by troops of the Roman Empire led to the mass suicide of the Sicarii rebels, who preferred death to surrender. According to Josephus, a first-century Jewish Roman historian, Herod the Great fortified Masada between 37 and 31 BCE as a refuge for himself in the event of a revolt. In 66 CE, at the beginning of the First Jewish-Roman War against the Roman Empire, a group of Jewish extremists called the Sicarii overcame the Roman garrison of Masada.

44. Petra (Jordan)

Petra, is a historic and archaeological city in the Jordanian governorate of Ma’an that has rock cut architecture and water conduits system. Established sometime around the 6th century BC as the capital city of the Nabataeans, it is a symbol of Jordan as well as its most visited tourism attraction. It lies on the slope of Mount Hor in a basin among the mountains which form the eastern flank of Arabah (Wadi Araba), the large valley running from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba. Petra was chosen as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in 2007 and a World Heritage Site since 1985. Petra was chosen by the BBC as one of “the 40 places you have to see before you die”.

45. Baalbek (Lebanon)

Baalbek is a town in the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon, altitude 1,170 metres (3,800 ft), situated east of the Litani River. It is famous for its exquisitely detailed yet monumentally scaled temple ruins of the Roman period, when Baalbek, known as Heliopolis was one of the largest sanctuaries in the Empire. It is Lebanon’s greatest Roman treasure, and it can be counted among the wonders of the ancient world. The largest and most noble Roman temples ever built, they are also among the best preserved. Towering high above the Beqaa plain, their monumental proportions proclaimed the power and wealth of Imperial Rome. The gods worshipped here, the Triad of Jupiter, Venus and Bacchus, were grafted onto the indigenous deities of Hadad, Atargatis and a young male god of fertility. Local influences are also seen in the planning and layout of the temples, which vary from the classic Roman design.

46. Damascus (Syria)

Damascus (commonly known as ash-Shām also known as the “City of Jasmin”) is the capital and largest city of Syria as well as one of the country’s 14 governorates. The Damascus Governorate is ruled by a governor appointed by the Minister of Interior. In addition to being widely known as the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, Damascus is a major cultural and religious center of the Levant. Damascus has a wealth of historical sites dating back to many different periods of the city’s history. Since the city has been built up with every passing occupation, it has become almost impossible to excavate all the ruins of Damascus that lie up to 8 feet (2.4 m) below the modern level. The Citadel of Damascus is located in the northwest corner of the Old City.

47. Palmyra (Syria)

Palmyra was in ancient times an important city of central Syria, located in an oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus and 180 km southwest of the Euphrates at Deir ez-Zor. It has long been a vital caravan city for travellers crossing the Syrian desert and was known as the Bride of the Desert. The earliest documented reference to the city by its Semitic name Tadmor, Tadmur or Tudmur (which means “the town that repels” in Amorite and “the indomitable town” in Aramaic.) is recorded in Babylonian tablets found in Mari. Though the ancient site fell into disuse after the 16th century, it is still known as Tadmor in Arabic, and there is a newer town next to the ruins of the same name. The Palmyrenes constructed a series of large-scale monuments containing funerary art such as limestone slabs with human busts representing the deceased.

48. Hagia Sophia (Turkey)

Hagia Sophia is a former Orthodox patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and to have “changed the history of architecture.” It was the largest cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years, until the completion of the Seville Cathedral in 1520. The current building was originally constructed as a church between 532 and 537 A.D. on the orders of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, and was in fact the third Church of the Holy Wisdom to occupy the site.

49. Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Turkey)

The Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Turkish: Sultanahmet Camii) is a historical mosque in Istanbul, the largest city in Turkey and the capital of the Ottoman Empire (from 1453 to 1923). The mosque is popularly known as the Blue Mosque for the blue tiles adorning the walls of its interior. It was built between 1609 and 1616, during the rule of Ahmed I. Like many other mosques, it also comprises a tomb of the founder, a madrasah and a hospice. While still used as a mosque, the Sultan Ahmed Mosque has also become a popular tourist attraction of Istanbul.

50. Library of Celsus (Turkey)

The library of Celsus, in Ephesus, Asia Minor (Anatolia, now Turkey), was built in honor of Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus (completed in 135 AD) by Celsus’ son, Gaius Julius Aquila (consul, 110 AD). Celsus had been consul in 92 AD, governor of Asia in 115 AD, and a wealthy and popular local citizen. The library was built to store 12,000 scrolls and to serve as a monumental tomb for Celsus. It was unusual to be buried within a library or even within city limits, so this was a special honor for Celsus. The building is important as one of few remaining examples of an ancient Roman-influenced library. It also shows that public libraries were built not only in Rome itself but throughout the Roman Empire.

Source: http://www.bionaturally.net/2010/03/50-keajaiban-kota-kuno-di-dunia.html#ixzz1E9TwAXch